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@inproceedings{patil_analysis_2025,
location = {{BELGAUM}, India},
title = {Analysis of {FOC} \& Trapezoidal Method of {PMSM} Motor for Variable Speed Application},
rights = {https://doi.org/10.15223/policy-029},
isbn = {979-8-3315-1873-8 979-8-3315-3103-4},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/11140901/},
doi = {10.1109/INCET64471.2025.11140901},
abstract = {This study compares Field-Oriented Control ({FOC}) and trapezoidal control techniques for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors ({PMSMs}) in modern industrial variable-speed applications. Traditionally, variable-speed applications have relied on {DC} machines, which have inherent drawbacks such as increased maintenance, spark losses, higher inertia, and overall higher costs. This {FOC} has emerged as a sophisticated method that enables independent control of torque and magnetization flux in {AC} motors, allowing for precise regulation of torque and speed tailored to the motor's electromagnetic state. {FOC} leverages Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation ({SPWM}) and Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation ({SVPWM}) techniques to enhance {DC} voltage utilization and minimize switching and harmonic losses. In contrast, the paper presents a detailed model of a {PMSM} drive system based on electronic components rather than standard mathematical blocks, leading to more realistic simulation results. All simulation modules, including the inverter and {PWM} generator, were custom-built, allowing for performance comparison under varying speed and torque conditions. Brushless {DC} ({BLDC}) motors, which are typically categorized as {PMSMs} with trapezoidal back-{EMF} waveforms, have gained traction due to their simplicity and cost-effectiveness. The trapezoidal control technique, also known as six-step commutation, simplifies the control process by aligning motor phase switching with the rotor position, resulting in a quasi-square-wave current. However, this method introduces torque ripple and presents control challenges, particularly in low-speed applications. Given the rising economic constraints and stringent governmental standards, there is an increasing demand for efficient, lowinterference, and adaptable electrical systems. This study demonstrates that {FOC} provides a more robust and efficient solution for high-performance applications than the trapezoidal control technique in {PMSMs}.},
eventtitle = {2025 6th International Conference for Emerging Technology ({INCET})},
pages = {1--9},
booktitle = {2025 6th International Conference for Emerging Technology ({INCET})},
publisher = {{IEEE}},
author = {Patil, Harshal and Argade, Sachin and Mulla, Aabid and Bharambe, Suraj and Barve, Hrishikesh and Suryawanshi, Rohit},
urldate = {2025-12-27},
date = {2025-05-23},
langid = {english},
file = {PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\GIW7I2E7\\Patil et al. - 2025 - Analysis of FOC & Trapezoidal Method of PMSM Motor for Variable Speed Application.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{lee_advanced_2001,
location = {Cambridge, {MA}, {USA}},
title = {Advanced {BLDC} motor drive for low cost and high performance propulsion system in electric and hybrid vehicles},
isbn = {978-0-7803-7091-3},
url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/939307/},
doi = {10.1109/IEMDC.2001.939307},
abstract = {In this paper, we propose an advanced brushless dc motor ({BLDCM}) drive for low cost and high performance electric propulsion system in electricvehicles ({EV}’s) and hybrid electric vehicles ({HEV}’s). It includes reduced parts power converter topologies and an optimal {PWM} control strategy to produce the desired dynamic and static speed and torque characteristics. The theoretical explanation and operational principle are described in detail. And, the performance of the proposed low cost {BLDCM} drive is, compared with the conventional counterpart by informative simulation results.},
eventtitle = {International Electric Machines and Drives Conference - {IEMDC} 2001},
pages = {246--251},
booktitle = {{IEMDC} 2001. {IEEE} International Electric Machines and Drives Conference (Cat. No.01EX485)},
publisher = {{IEEE}},
author = {Lee, B.K. and Ehsani, M.},
urldate = {2025-12-27},
date = {2001},
langid = {english},
file = {PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\M2ZRVZXS\\Lee et Ehsani - 2001 - Advanced BLDC motor drive for low cost and high performance propulsion system in electric and hybrid.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{mohammd_taher_new_2021,
location = {Tabriz, Iran},
title = {A New {MPC}-based Approach for Torque Ripple Reduction in {BLDC} Motor Drive},
isbn = {978-1-6654-0366-5},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9405871/},
doi = {10.1109/PEDSTC52094.2021.9405871},
abstract = {In this paper, a new model predictive control ({MPC}) is proposed for brushless {DC} motor ({BLDCM}) to reduce the commutation torque ripple ({CTR}). The torque ripples generate vibration noise and reduce the efficiency. With purpose of minimizing the {CTR} of the {BLDCM} and considering the {CTR} sources, the proposed {MPC} scheme is designed by predicting the phase current and electromagnetic torque. The error square of predicted values of non-commutating current and electromagnetic torque, which are minimized in the cost function, determines the optimal switching states. The proposed {MPC} control is applied at commutation moments which is detected by analysis of Hall sensor signal. This control scheme is implemented on the traditional topology of the {BLDCM} driving system which facilitates the implementation. Considering a 210V-2000W {BLDCM}, the comparative analysis using the {MATLAB}/Simulink environment is carried out in terms of the {CTR} reduction, tracking of the reference current under low-speed, high-speed and load torque tracking. The key parameters’ responses of {BLDCM} illustrate the improvement of the {CTR}, fast-transient response and small steady-state errors by using the proposed {MPC} against the conventional {PI}-{PWM}.},
eventtitle = {2021 12th Power Electronics, Drive Systems, and Technologies Conference ({PEDSTC})},
pages = {1--6},
booktitle = {2021 12th Power Electronics, Drive Systems, and Technologies Conference ({PEDSTC})},
publisher = {{IEEE}},
author = {Mohammd Taher, Seyed and Halvaei Niasar, Abolfazl and Abbas Taher, Seyed},
urldate = {2025-12-27},
date = {2021-02-02},
langid = {english},
file = {PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\9RNPM3Z5\\Mohammd Taher et al. - 2021 - A New MPC-based Approach for Torque Ripple Reduction in BLDC Motor Drive.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{jomsa-nga_torque_2024,
title = {Torque Ripple Mitigation Using Field Oriented Control for {BLDC} in Small Electric Vehicles},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/11004292/},
doi = {10.1109/ISC260477.2024.11004292},
abstract = {This study introduces a motor control strategy suitable for small electric vehicles, aimed at supporting the Smart City framework. The Field Oriented Control ({FOC}) method is utilized to control Brushless {DC} Motors ({BLDC}) which are chosen for their numerous advantages such as highpower density, superior starting torque, lightweight design, and cost-effectiveness when compared to Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors ({PMSM}). These characteristics make {BLDC} motors highly suitable for electric motorcycles and other small electric vehicles. However, {BLDC} motors have the drawback of high torque ripple which results in reduced ride comfort and increased mechanical stress. To address this issue, the study employs the {FOC} method which effectively reduces torque ripple, noise, and vibration compared to the traditional Six Step control method. The efficacy of the proposed method has been validated through simulation results obtained using {PSIM} software, as well as through experimental outcomes.},
eventtitle = {2024 {IEEE} International Smart Cities Conference ({ISC}2)},
pages = {1--6},
booktitle = {2024 {IEEE} International Smart Cities Conference ({ISC}2)},
author = {Jomsa-Nga, Jirapong and Teesakul, Pinmanus and Tanjaroen, Wason and Supatti, Uthane},
urldate = {2025-12-17},
date = {2024-10},
note = {{ISSN}: 2687-8860},
keywords = {{BLDC}, Brushless {DC} motors, Brushless {DC} Motors, Electric Motorcycle, Electric vehicles, Electric Vehicles, {FOC}, Motorcycles, Noise, Simulation, Small Electric Vehicles, Smart cities, Smart city, Testing, Torque, Torque measurement, Torque Ripple, Vibrations},
file = {Full Text PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\6S3FC5Z7\\Jomsa-Nga et al. - 2024 - Torque Ripple Mitigation Using Field Oriented Control for BLDC in Small Electric Vehicles.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{li_quantitative_2019,
title = {Quantitative Characteristic Comparison between Sensorless Six Step and Field Oriented Control Methods for Permanent Magnet Brushless {DC} Motors},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8912478/},
doi = {10.1109/ECCE.2019.8912478},
abstract = {Permanent magnet ({PM}) brushless {DC} motors ({BLDCM}) have the advantages of high power density, high efficiency, simple structure and high reliability. {BLDCM} can be categorized into either trapezoidal back-electromotive ({EMF}) motor type, or sinusoidal back-{EMF} motor. There are typically two {BLDCM} control methods: One is six step control method which is easy to realize with simple hardware, the other is field oriented control ({FOC}) method which has better control performance. This paper compares quantitatively the characterization between these two {BLDC} control methods, with respect to torque ripple and power losses. Theoretical analysis and simulation studies are presented to illustrate their advantages and disadvantages. Experimental verification is conducted using a 48V, 4-pole, 4500RPM {BLDC} motor.},
eventtitle = {2019 {IEEE} Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition ({ECCE})},
pages = {1881--1885},
booktitle = {2019 {IEEE} Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition ({ECCE})},
author = {Li, Feilang and Yao, Wenxi and Lee, Kevin},
urldate = {2025-12-17},
date = {2019-09},
note = {{ISSN}: 2329-3748},
keywords = {Torque, Torque measurement, field oriented control, Mathematical model, {MOSFET}, Permanent magnet brushless {DC} motor, power loss, six step control, Stator windings, Switches, torque ripple},
file = {Full Text PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\32AFSS22\\Li et al. - 2019 - Quantitative Characteristic Comparison between Sensorless Six Step and Field Oriented Control Method.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{bhatiya_bldc_2024,
title = {{BLDC} Motor Trapezoidal Regulation Using Hall Effect Sensor},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10829278/},
doi = {10.1109/ICISAA62385.2024.10829278},
abstract = {{BLDC} motors provide excellent performance, durability, and efficiency, making them ideal for a variety of applications. The motor was operated by means of the six-step commutation process of the trapezoidal control approach, which was applied to the exact rotor position data obtained via Hall effect sensors. This approach perfectly times the commutation sequence, reducing torque ripple and improving motor performance. The design, modeling, and experimental findings validated the effectiveness of the proposed control technique, suggesting that it can be used to maximize {BLDC} motor performance in commercial and industrial applications.},
eventtitle = {2024 International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Advanced Applications ({ICISAA})},
pages = {1--6},
booktitle = {2024 International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Advanced Applications ({ICISAA})},
author = {Bhatiya, Hansa and Patil, Dushyant and Makune, Shriram and Kadam, Swaraj and Mahajan, Vishal and Vaidya, Harshal},
urldate = {2025-12-17},
date = {2024-10},
keywords = {Torque measurement, {BLDC} motor, Commutation, Hall effect, Hall effect sensors, Motor control strategy, Process control, Regulation, Reliability, Rotors, Sensors, Stability analysis, Trapezoidal control, Velocity control},
file = {Full Text PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\J9NQ9CM8\\Bhatiya et al. - 2024 - BLDC Motor Trapezoidal Regulation Using Hall Effect Sensor.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{m_speed_2025,
title = {Speed Control of Six Step Commutation Trapezoidal by Fuzzy Logic Control of {BLDC} Motor for E-Vehicle},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/11113877},
doi = {10.1109/ICOECA66273.2025.00076},
abstract = {This paper demand for efficient and sustainable transportation solutions has driven the widespread adoption of Electric Vehicles ({EVs}). Brushless {DC} motors emerging as a popular choice for their high effectiveness, reliability, and low maintenance. This project focuses on the speed control of {BLDC} motors in {EVs} using trapezoidal control fuzzy logic techniques. Trapezoidal control, a common approach for {BLDC} motor commutation, is explored for its advantages in smooth speed control and reduced harmonic distortion. A speed control fuzzy logic algorithm is developed to adjust the motor speed vigorously created on the vehicle's operational requirements, ensuring efficient energy. The system uses the six-step commutation approach to produce the required signals that regulate the inverter that powers of {BLDC} motor while monitoring the motor's speed, current, and rotor position in real-time. The efficiency of the suggested speed control strategy is confirmed by the presentation of simulation results, focusing on achieving rapid acceleration, maintaining a steady cruising speed, and improving torque efficiency.},
eventtitle = {2025 5th International Conference on Expert Clouds and Applications ({ICOECA})},
pages = {407--412},
booktitle = {2025 5th International Conference on Expert Clouds and Applications ({ICOECA})},
author = {M, Kirubaharan and S, Haribaskar and Gopalakrishnan, R. and E, Chandrakumar and R, Satheeshkumar},
urldate = {2025-12-17},
date = {2025-03},
keywords = {Simulation, Torque, Commutation, Rotors, Velocity control, {BLDC} Motor, Fuzzy logic, Monitoring, Real-time systems, six-step commutation, Speed control of {EV}, System performance, Transportation, trapezoidal control fuzzy logic techniques},
file = {PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\JV793P7X\\M et al. - 2025 - Speed Control of Six Step Commutation Trapezoidal by Fuzzy Logic Control of BLDC Motor for E-Vehicle.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{farid_performance_2007,
title = {Performance analysis of field-oriented control and direct torque control for sensorless induction motor drives},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4433783},
doi = {10.1109/MED.2007.4433783},
abstract = {This paper presents a contribution for detailed comparison between two sensorless control techniques for high performance induction motor drives: Field-oriented control ({FOC}) and direct torque control ({DTC}). The main characteristics of field-oriented control and direct torque control schemes are studied by simulation emphasizing their advantages and disadvantages. The performances of the two control schemes are evaluated in terms of torque and current ripples, and transient responses to load toque variation. We can nevertheless say that the two control schemes provide in their basic configuration, comparable performances regarding the torque control and parameter sensitivity. We can note a slight advance of {DTC} scheme compared to {FOC} scheme regarding the dynamic flux control performance and the implementation complexity. The choice of one or the other scheme will depend mainly on specific requirements of the application.},
eventtitle = {2007 Mediterranean Conference on Control \& Automation},
pages = {1--6},
booktitle = {2007 Mediterranean Conference on Control \& Automation},
author = {Farid, Naceri and Sebti, Belkacem and Mebarka, Kercha and Tayeb, Benmokrane},
urldate = {2025-12-17},
date = {2007-06},
keywords = {Induction motor drives, Induction motors, Open loop systems, Performance analysis, Performance evaluation, Pulse width modulation, Sensorless control, Stators, Torque control, Voltage},
file = {Full Text PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\QS3AXW4G\\Farid et al. - 2007 - Performance analysis of field-oriented control and direct torque control for sensorless induction mo.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@collection{tan_advances_2013,
location = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
title = {Advances in Swarm Intelligence: 4th International Conference, {ICSI} 2013, Harbin, China, June 12-15, 2013, Proceedings, Part {II}},
volume = {7929},
rights = {https://www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining},
isbn = {978-3-642-38714-2 978-3-642-38715-9},
url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-38715-9},
series = {Lecture Notes in Computer Science},
shorttitle = {Advances in Swarm Intelligence},
abstract = {The Design and Implementation of Motor Drive
for an Electric Bicycle},
publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
editor = {Tan, Ying and Shi, Yuhui and Mo, Hongwei},
editorb = {Hutchison, David and Kanade, Takeo and Kittler, Josef and Kleinberg, Jon M. and Mattern, Friedemann and Mitchell, John C. and Naor, Moni and Nierstrasz, Oscar and Pandu Rangan, C. and Steffen, Bernhard and Sudan, Madhu and Terzopoulos, Demetri and Tygar, Doug and Vardi, Moshe Y. and Weikum, Gerhard},
editorbtype = {redactor},
urldate = {2025-12-17},
date = {2013},
langid = {english},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-642-38715-9},
file = {PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\BVFW45SK\\Tan et al. - 2013 - Advances in Swarm Intelligence 4th International Conference, ICSI 2013, Harbin, China, June 12-15,.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{samitha_ransara_modelling_2013,
title = {Modelling and analysis of a low cost Brushless {DC} motor drive},
url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6505698/},
doi = {10.1109/ICIT.2013.6505698},
abstract = {This paper presents a buck converter based modelling technique for Brushless {DC} ({BLDC}) motor drives. The proposed technique is a better alternative to model {BLDC} motor drives due to its reduced computational complexity in contrast to the conventional phase-variable model. Using the model, constant speed operation of a {BLDC} motor drive operated without a {DC} link capacitor is analysed. Theoretical behaviour of the motor drive, predicted from the model, is compared with Matlab/Simulink based simulations to demonstrate the validity of the model. Mathematical expressions are derived from the model to evaluate the steady state performance of the {BLDC} motor drive, which is presented, in comparison to a similar sized conventional {BLDC} motor drive. The proposed model and mathematical expressions are expected to be useful at the design stage of the low cost motor drive to achieve comparable performance.},
eventtitle = {2013 {IEEE} International Conference on Industrial Technology ({ICIT})},
pages = {356--361},
booktitle = {2013 {IEEE} International Conference on Industrial Technology ({ICIT})},
author = {Samitha Ransara, H. K. and Madawala, Udaya K.},
urldate = {2026-01-01},
date = {2013-02},
keywords = {Brushless {DC} motors, Torque, Mathematical model, Analytical models, Capacitors, Motor drives},
file = {Full Text PDF:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\F7UAHCL6\\Samitha Ransara et Madawala - 2013 - Modelling and analysis of a low cost Brushless DC motor drive.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@thesis{gasc_conception_2004,
title = {Conception d'un actionneur à aimants permanents à faibles ondulations de couple pour assistance de direction automobile},
url = {https://hal.science/tel-04297384},
abstract = {This study relates to the design of permanent magnet actuator for automotive electric steering assistance and has been supported by the {CNRS} and {RENAULT}.
The analysis of the specification schedule for automotive electric power steering reveals the need of a very low motor torque ripple. The minimisation of the torque ripple is treated according two ways : a first action consists in optimising the motor design and a second one in compensating the torque ripple by a control law.
Concerning the design, a study of the mechanical system links the torque sensor stiffness, integrated into the steering column, to the motor inertia brought back to the steering wheel. The low inertia and the high ambient temperature constitute strong constraints of design for a given size. Increasing the shaft stiffness reduces the constraints of design. Analytical electromagnetic and thermal models have been coupled and exploited according to a methodology defined by the specificity of the problem. Finite Element Analysis {FLUX}2D™ is used so as to validate the analytical design and to study torque ripple techniques. A solution based on a structure with a fractional slot number and an original winding is proposed. The realisation and the tests of a prototype have validated some aspects of the design.
In order to minimise the torque ripple by control laws, simulation models under Simulink were developed. They integrate the torque ripple which has been determined by Finite Element Analysis. Several observer structures taking into account the torque ripple are presented and compared. An original structure based on a Kalman’s filter coupled to a load torque observer based on Luenberger’s theory is updated. This structure enables to manage the control without position encoder while strongly reducing the torque ripple. A state feedback structure and a {RST} controller combined with load torque compensation were implemented on an experimental set-up designed and instrumented with the aim of reproducing the system of electric power-assisted steering.},
institution = {Institut National Polytechnique (Toulouse)},
type = {Theses},
author = {Gasc, Laurent},
urldate = {2026-01-02},
date = {2004-11},
note = {Issue: 2004INPT043H},
keywords = {Active compensation, Automobile power steering, Compensation active, Contrôle en position, Direction assistée automobile, Finite Element Analysis, {FLUX}2D, Model, Modélisation, Moteur à aimants permanents, Observateur de couple, Ondulations de couple, Permanent magnet motors, Position control, Ripple torque, Torque observer},
file = {HAL PDF Full Text:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\QQCS4KN4\\Gasc - 2004 - Conception d'un actionneur à aimants permanents à faibles ondulations de couple pour assistance de d.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@inproceedings{akiki_reduction_2016,
location = {Grenoble, France},
title = {Réduction des ondulations de couple d'un moteur à aimants en multi-V et bobinage sur dents},
url = {https://hal.science/hal-01361708},
abstract = {Cet article présente une étude sur la réduction des ondulations de couple d'un moteur électrique à 12 dents et 10 pôles avec des aimants intérieurs en multi-V et bobinage concentré sur dents. Ce type de machine est utilisé pour des applications qui exigent un fort couple à basse vitesse. Cependant, la combinaison 12/10 développe des ondulations de couple élevées. L'objectif de cette étude est de présenter une méthodologie de réduction des ondulations de couple en se basant sur le vrillage du rotor et l'asymétrie des pôles. Dans cet article, l'étude de chacune des techniques est d'abord présentée puis une méthode de combinaison de ces deux techniques est proposée afin de réduire certains harmoniques du couple.},
booktitle = {2nd Symposium de Génie Électrique ({SGE} 2016)},
author = {Akiki, Paul and Hage-Hassan, Maya and Vannier, Jean-Claude and Dessante, Philippe and Dagusé, Benjamin and Bensetti, Mohamed},
urldate = {2026-01-02},
date = {2016-06},
keywords = {Aimants multi-V, modélisation, ondulations de couple, plan d'expérience, pôles asymétriques, vrillage},
file = {HAL PDF Full Text:C\:\\Users\\nolan\\Zotero\\storage\\AFPWJ2YA\\Akiki et al. - 2016 - Réduction des ondulations de couple d'un moteur à aimants en multi-V et bobinage sur dents.pdf:application/pdf},
}
@book{gieras_modern_2023,
location = {Boca Raton},
edition = {First edition},
title = {Modern permanent magnet electric machines: theory and control},
isbn = {978-0-367-61058-6},
shorttitle = {Modern permanent magnet electric machines},
abstract = {Fundamentals of magnetism -- Soft magnetic materials -- Permanent magnets -- Calculation of magnetic circuits with {PMs} -- Pm brush {DC} machines and control -- Pm brushless {DC} motors and drives control -- Pm synchronous motors and drives control -- Axial and transverse flux. Motors -- High-speed {PM} brushless machines},
publisher = {{CRC} Press},
author = {Gieras, Jacek F. and Shen, Jian-Xin},
date = {2023},
doi = {10.1201/9781003103073},
}
@misc{b1,
author = {Benjamin Vedder},
title = {VESC BLDC Motor Control Firmware},
year = {2024},
howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/vedderb/bldc/}}
}
@misc{b2,
author = {Benjamin Vedder},
title = {lispBM in VESC},
year = {2024},
howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/vedderb/bldc/tree/master/lispBM}}
}

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H.~Patil, S.~Argade, A.~Mulla, S.~Bharambe, H.~Barve, and R.~Suryawanshi,
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application,'' in \emph{2025 6th International Conference for Emerging
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F.~Li, W.~Yao, and K.~Lee, ``Quantitative characteristic comparison between
sensorless six step and field oriented control methods for permanent magnet
brushless {DC} motors,'' in \emph{2019 {IEEE} Energy Conversion Congress and
Exposition ({ECCE})}, pp. 1881--1885, {ISSN}: 2329-3748. [Online]. Available:
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approach for torque ripple reduction in {BLDC} motor drive,'' in \emph{2021
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[Online]. Available: \url{https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9405871/}
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J.~F. Gieras and J.-X. Shen, \emph{Modern permanent magnet electric machines:
theory and control}, first edition~ed.\hskip 1em plus 0.5em minus 0.4em\relax
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L.~Gasc, ``Conception d'un actionneur à aimants permanents à faibles
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H.~Bhatiya, D.~Patil, S.~Makune, S.~Kadam, V.~Mahajan, and H.~Vaidya, ``{BLDC}
motor trapezoidal regulation using hall effect sensor,'' in \emph{2024
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J.~Jomsa-Nga, P.~Teesakul, W.~Tanjaroen, and U.~Supatti, ``Torque ripple
mitigation using field oriented control for {BLDC} in small electric
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performance propulsion system in electric and hybrid vehicles,'' in
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\bibitem{b2}
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\documentclass[conference]{IEEEtran}
\IEEEoverridecommandlockouts
% The preceding line is only needed to identify funding in the first footnote. If that is unneeded, please comment it out.
\usepackage{cite}
\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb,amsfonts}
\usepackage{algorithmic}
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\usepackage{siunitx}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\usepackage{xcolor}
\def\BibTeX{{\rm B\kern-.05em{\sc i\kern-.025em b}\kern-.08em
T\kern-.1667em\lower.7ex\hbox{E}\kern-.125emX}}
\begin{document}
\title{
Design and Implementation of a High-Power Motor Controller for Bicycles
}
%\maketitle
\author{\IEEEauthorblockN{Hugo Abescat}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
abescat@insa-toulouse.fr}
\and
\IEEEauthorblockN{Karima Attar}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
karima.attar@insa-toulouse.fr}
\and
\IEEEauthorblockN{Brage Flønæs Johnsen}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
johnse@insa-toulouse.fr}
\and
\IEEEauthorblockN{Oskar Orvik}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
orvik@insa-toulouse.fr}
\and
\IEEEauthorblockN{Julien Pavillon}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
pavillon@insa-toulouse.fr}
\and
\IEEEauthorblockN{Nolan Reynier Nomer}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
reynier-nome@insa-toulouse.fr}
\and
\IEEEauthorblockN{Aleksander Taban}
\IEEEauthorblockA{\textit{GEI Department} \\
\textit{INSA Toulouse}\\
Toulouse, France \\
taban@insa-toulouse.fr}
}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
Electric bikes are becoming an increasingly attractive solution for transporting goods between short distances,
especially in city-wide infrastructures. However, most commercially available controllers rely on complex integrated
circuits making repair and local manufacturing difficult, particularly for organisations operating in
resource-constrained or low-tech environments. La Manufacture Autonome Décentralisée (LaMAD) is developing products
and solutions, particularly e-bikes, which are more repairable and sustainable. Previous studies have predominantly
focused on performance optimisation of Field Oriented Control (FOC) and trapezoidal commutation strategies, with limited
attention to repairability, component sourcing, and community-centred sustainability criteria. This project aims to
design, assemble, and develop a functional, low-tech and open-source motor controller for electric cargo bikes. The
current model uses an open-source motor control called VESC (Vedder Electronic Speed Controller) that allows precise
control of electric motors. The controller needs to be compatible with a VESC controller and easily locally repairable
by LaMAD. By exploring the inner workings of the VESC project, modelling of the physical systems and the Printed Circuit
Board, PCB, we investigated the ways we could do it in another way. We acquired a VESC controller to compare our system
and a commercial product. Preliminary results demonstrate that the adapted VESC-based controller successfully drives
the target motor under both commutation strategies, and that positional control is achievable with the current hardware
configuration. Security vulnerabilities related to open Bluetooth access were identified. These findings suggest that
open-source, locally fabricated motor controllers can meet the functional requirements of electric cargo bikes while
significantly improving repairability.
\end{abstract}
\begin{IEEEkeywords}
VESC Project, Brushless DC motor, Field Oriented Control, Trapezoidal commutation, Low-Tech, e-bike.
\end{IEEEkeywords}
\section{Introduction}
The fast urbanization of global logistics has positioned electric cargo bikes as a primary solution. At the heart of
these vehicles is the motor controller. Current research and industry standards primarily focus on two methods of
commutation for the controller: Trapezoidal commutation and Field Oriented Control (FOC).
As motor controllers become smarter, they increasingly incorporate wireless connectivity for tuning and diagnostics.
Current research highlights that while Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) and mobile app integration improve user experience,
they often introduce vulnerabilities. Open-source projects, in particular, must balance ease of access for community
developers with the need to secure the vehicle.
We also argue the need for general public's safety when it comes to these bikes, as it could be a danger to the traffic.
This is especially true when it comes to vehicules carrying a substantial load. This needs to be considered by laMAD,
where their responsibility and control begins and ends. Should there be a difference between the firmware loaded on a
product from laMAD than what is publicly available?
\section{Related Work}
\subsection{Modeling of BLDC Motor}
The electromechanical model of a BLDC motor is foundational for understanding its behavior under different control
schemes. BLDC motors are categorized by their back-electromotive force (back-EMF) waveform: trapezoidal or sinusoidal.
This distinction is crucial, as the trapezoidal shape inherently leads to torque ripple when the supplied phase currents
are not perfectly aligned, directly influencing the choice and effectiveness of the control strategy
\cite{patil_analysis_2025}. For a BLDC motor with trapezoidal back-EMF, the electromagnetic torque is given by:
\[
T_e = \frac{e_a i_a + e_b i_b + e_c i_c}{\omega_m}
\]
where \( e_x \) is the back-EMF and \( i_x \) is the phase current \cite{li_quantitative_2019}. The classical d-q
reference frame model, ideal for sinusoidal machines, is less suitable for trapezoidal BLDC motors because it assumes
sinusoidal flux distribution. Phase-variable modeling in the natural (abc) frame is therefore more appropriate, as it
directly accounts for the non-sinusoidal, trapezoidal nature of the back-EMF and the associated harmonics
\cite{mohammd_taher_new_2021}.
\subsection{Trapezoidal Commutation (Six-Step Control) for BLDC Motors}
% Trapezoidal commutation, or six-step control, uses Hall-effect sensors to synchronize phase current switching every
% 120 electrical degrees.
Trapezoidal commutation, or Six-Step control, uses bipolar conduction, with two motor phases conducting at any time and
current commutation occurring every 120 electrical degrees \cite{gieras_modern_2023}. As commutation depends on rotor
position, Six-Step control requires either position sensors (e.g. Hall sensors, encoders, or resolvers) or sensorless
estimation based on back-EMF detection or observers \cite{gieras_modern_2023, gasc_conception_2004}. This method is
renowned for its simplicity of implementation and low hardware cost \cite{bhatiya_bldc_2024}. It enables effective
torque control but introduces significant torque ripple during commutation events, especially under high load
\cite{jomsa-nga_torque_2024}. This ripple generates noise, increases mechanical stress, and reduces overall efficiency
\cite{mohammd_taher_new_2021}. Although PWM techniques can mitigate this ripple, they do not completely eliminate it
\cite{li_quantitative_2019}.
\subsection{Field-Oriented Control (FOC) for BLDC Motors}
FOC is a vector control strategy that decouples the stator flux and torque components. It transforms three-phase
currents into orthogonal \( I_d \) and \( I_q \) components, enabling precise torque control and significant ripple
reduction \cite{jomsa-nga_torque_2024}. FOC is particularly effective for BLDC motors with sinusoidal back-EMF but can
also be applied to trapezoidal back-EMF motors, albeit with less impressive ripple suppression results
\cite{li_quantitative_2019}. It requires greater computational power and more precise position sensors (e.g. encoders).
Comparative analysis shows that FOC yields a more stable stator current profile and significantly reduces torque
variations compared to trapezoidal control \cite{patil_analysis_2025}.
\subsection{Comparative Analysis: FOC vs. Trapezoidal for Light Electric Vehicles}
\subsubsection{Torque Ripple and User Comfort}
Firstly, torque ripple can be reduced for both control methods by selecting appropriate motor parameters, such as the
number of stator slots and rotor poles \cite{gasc_conception_2004}.
FOC substantially reduces torque ripple compared to Six-Step control, directly enhancing ride comfort and minimizing
vibrations. Experimental results show a torque ripple of \SI{18.38}{\percent} for FOC versus \SI{35.67}{\percent} for
Six-Step control at 500~rpm \cite{jomsa-nga_torque_2024}.
Commutation torque ripple (CTR), prominent in Six-Step control, can be specifically targeted and mitigated using
advanced control techniques like Model Predictive Control (MPC) while retaining the fundamental simplicity of
trapezoidal commutation \cite{mohammd_taher_new_2021}.
\subsubsection{Energy Efficiency}
FOC optimizes torque per ampere (MTPA), improving efficiency at low loads. Six-Step control exhibits lower switching
losses at high speeds \cite{li_quantitative_2019}.
\subsubsection{Complexity, Cost, and Low-Tech Suitability}
Six-Step control is inherently simpler, cheaper, and more robust, making it a prime candidate for low-tech applications.
Research focused on reducing propulsion system costs proposes simplified hardware topologies, such as 4-switch inverters
(instead of 6) coupled with direct current control strategies, maintaining acceptable performance while significantly
lowering hardware costs \cite{lee_advanced_2001}. FOC, while superior in performance, is more complex to implement and
carries higher hardware costs (sensors, processing power).
\subsubsection{Dynamic Response}
FOC provides faster response times and better load disturbance rejection \cite{jomsa-nga_torque_2024}.
\section{Research gap}
Despite this progress, limited research has examined the adaptation of open-source motor controllers to LowTech and
repairability constraints. To date, researchers have not addressed the challenge of designing a controller that can
be locally fabricated, repaired with standard components, and secured against unauthorised wireless access requirements
that are critical for decentralised, community-operated fleets.
\section{The aim of the study}
This report presents the design and implementation of a VESC-based motor controller tailored to the needs of the
Manufacture Autonome Décentralisée (MAD), an organisation operating electric cargo bikes and freight tricycles.
We aim to focus on adapting the VESC open-source firmware to support both FOC and trapezoidal commutation, integrating
positional control, and addressing Bluetooth security, while prioritising local manufacturability at INSA Toulouse.
\section{Software and Connectivity}
\subsection{BLE Compatibility With the VESC}
\subsubsection{First Experiment}
VESC-controllers are not necessarily equipped with Bluetooth-modules by default. Often, it is necessary to add a
BLE-module. A standard HC-05 bluetooth-module compatible with arduino is a great way to send and recieve
bluetooth-packets from a host, e.g. a mobile phone, via a bridge translating the bluetooth packets to the UART protocol.
This could be demonstrated using a ESP8622's standard library with said module, by letting us send characters from one
device to another.
\subsubsection{HC-05 and the VESC}
By flashing the VESC firmware on a discovery-card and connecting the HC-05 module to the PB10 and PB11-pins, which are
the Rx and Tx-pins for the STM32F4xx chip, we discovered that the setup for the bluetooth module was not available in
the VESC tool. The inherent BLE capabilities is an important limitation to consider when designing a VESC system.
We learned therefore that the HC-05 is not originally adapted for BLE. The need for a bridge also adds on complexity
and cost, in the form of extra components and another device to maintain the code of. For the future, choosing a
bluetooth module supporting BLE will be the easiest solution. Preferably a module fitting the communication connector on
the cheap FOCer project\cite{b1} could facilitate the relevancy of the PCB project with a microcontroller.
\subsubsection{BLE Vulnerability}
Bluetooth could be a vulnerability to a VESC if it is to be used as a controller in real-time, as the controller could
be jammed. Our test with the Flipper Zero shows the disfunctionnality of Bluetooth with different use cases.
We experienced with the jamming of a bluetooth speaker that the music completely stopped. It could also be investigated
how the connection to the VESC could be modified using the vesc tool. We will touch more on the accessability of the
code within the vesc tool sooner.
\subsection{Code integrity}
\subsubsection{Context}
As the project is open source, and the code is freely accessible, there should be no reason to hide the code. It could
however be reasonable to protect the code from changes which could hurt other people. Changing following parameters
should at least come with a disclaimer and clearly state the dangers possible by proceeding with said changes. We
have in mind the maximum speed permitted and the power available to the motors.
\subsubsection{LispBM extraction}
We caugth word that the lisp code for the VESC used by Maillon mobility was easy to extract. By building an older
firmware with the Maillon mobility software, we observed this by going to the lispBM tab and clicking read. It's up to
laMAD if they would like to reinforce this mechanism. A modification on a parameter and then clicking upload allowed
us to easily change the speed limit. This could bring up a public danger. This raises questions on the use of laMADs
equipment which is in a traffic friendly manner.
\subsubsection{LispBM Code}
When we flashed newer firmware from the project made by Benjamin Vedder\cite{b1}, we also observed some difficulties in
uploading the lispBM script taken from the one on firmware version 6.06. This could indicate that there needs to be
further maintenance of the code in order to get the software up to speed. This needs to be documented better for someone
to continue the project. This could be a good investment for laMAD as well in the context of training for the people
working on the motor control part of the e-bike.
This documentation could be as simple as referencing the relevant parts of the lispBM documentation \cite{b2}
\subsubsection{Proposed Solution}
This risk could be patched by developing a VESC application for the VESC controller or using a binary. This is a
solution which is less open source, but which is make unlawful use of the material harder. The application could be
created using C and use an algorithm known by laMAD in order to securise the access to someone to change the parameters
only if they are laMAD certified personnel. This encryption would preferably be reduced to the most essential settings
in order to align with what our impression of the philosophy of laMAD would be.
\subsection{VESC Compiling}
As mentionned, we have been able to compile the VESC tool and the VESC firmware. This firmware has been put onto an
STM32F4xx Discovery card. This poses several obstacles for our progress on the topic of cybersecurity. We will however
summarise what we have learned for you and propose some additional work for the future. The challenges we encountered
were the following: The lack of bluetooth capabilities. We did not have a module with BLE either. We had access to a
HC-05 module, but that only allows for a normal bluetooth protocol and would require further work on a bridge to UART
by using an esp8622 that we had as well. We propose that the next group has access to a VESC controller from the
beginning, as well as a motor we could control. This could be in cooperation with laMAD, as laMAD could propose
some models they're interested in.
We also found that the information on the VESC is scattered around the internet. The ressources is also sometimes
based on a debian-based linux system which adds more work for someone using another distribution of linux. This could
hinder the implementation facility for new users. We struggeled particularly with the Qt packages for positioning and
gamepad. We would therefore recommend the use of a debian-based linux system for the computer working with the VESC
for the laMAD associates.
\section{Discussion}
This project could be seen as an introduction to the VESC project for someone who don't know about it from beforehand,
the challenges the new users face during setup, as well as a demand for clear expectations concerning documentation
on the subject. The project laMAD is leading should probably not be a fork of the project, as the project is still
in development.
As a final note, this proved to be a project which could easily be developed into several different projects in
different fields. Some projects could be continued later on as a different PIR subject, other could be proposed to
later years in different spesialisations like TLS SEC, ESPE. Our thoughts on the following projects that could be
explored are the following.
The fabrication line for electronics is globalised. This is okay in a stable world, but it could be a problem in a world
full of instability, be it war, blockages, or tarifs. The idea of opening a spesialisation in cooperation with AIME came
up as an idea.
For TLS SEC the subject could be the design for a fitting mechanism to restrict certain priveligies to certified
personnel that could be used in the C programming language. Later down the line we could also see the possibility to
analyse the Bluetooth frames in order to manipulate them in order to change important parameters.
The continuation on the PCB could be a subject fitting an ESPE spesialisation.
The proposition of and supply of a vesc system to play with and troubleshoot could be a good rule of thumb, which
allows for a quicker start and gives among other things an idea of the budget and the supply line used by a entity
in the sector. Proposing a visit could also be one way to familiarise students with the association.
What should be a clear conclusion from our test with the jammer is that a controlles based on Bluetooth alone should be
avoided when possible and practical. Examples where this could be relevant include electric skateboards, as cables could
impose a tripping hazard. There, an encapsulation of an encrypted control frame could be an thought.
\section{Results}
\section{Conclusion/Summary}
%\begin{figure}[htbp]
%%\centerline{\includegraphics{fig1.png}}
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%\label{fig}
%\end{figure}
%Figure Labels: Use 8 point Times New Roman for Figure labels. Use words
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%``Magnetization'', or ``Magnetization, M'', not just ``M''. If including
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%quantities and units. For example, write ``Temperature (K)'', not
%``Temperature/K''.
\section*{Acknowledgment}
The preferred spelling of the word ``acknowledgment'' in America is without
an ``e'' after the ``g''. Avoid the stilted expression ``one of us (R. B.
G.) thanks $\ldots$''. Instead, try ``R. B. G. thanks$\ldots$''. Put sponsor
acknowledgments in the unnumbered footnote on the first page.
%\section*{References}
%Please number citations consecutively within brackets \cite{b1}. The
%sentence punctuation follows the bracket \cite{b2}. Refer simply to the reference
%number, as in \cite{b3}---do not use ``Ref. \cite{b3}'' or ``reference \cite{b3}'' except at
%the beginning of a sentence: ``Reference \cite{b3} was the first $\ldots$''
\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}
\bibliography{PIR_MadMax3}
\end{document}

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