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\usepackage{algorithmic} \usepackage{url} +\usepackage{hyperref} \usepackage{placeins} \usepackage{siunitx} \usepackage{graphicx} @@ -79,13 +80,13 @@ attention to repairability, component sourcing, and community-centred sustainabi design, assemble, and develop a functional, low-tech and open-source motor controller for electric cargo bikes. The current model uses an open-source motor control called VESC (Vedder Electronic Speed Controller) that allows precise control of electric motors. The controller needs to be compatible with a VESC controller and easily locally repairable -by the MAD. By exploring the inner workings of the VESC project, modelling of the physical systems and the Printed Circuit - Board (PCB) we investigated the ways we could do it in another way. We acquired a VESC controller to compare our system - and a commercial product. Preliminary results demonstrate that the adapted VESC-based controller successfully drives - the target motor under both commutation strategies, and that positional control is achievable with the current hardware - configuration. Security vulnerabilities related to open Bluetooth access were identified. These findings suggest that - open-source, locally fabricated motor controllers can meet the functional requirements of electric cargo bikes while - significantly improving repairability. +by the MAD. By exploring the inner workings of the VESC project, modelling of the physical systems and the Printed +Circuit Board (PCB) we investigated the ways we could do it in another way. We acquired a VESC controller to compare our +system and a commercial product. Preliminary results demonstrate that the adapted VESC-based controller successfully +drives the target motor under both commutation strategies, and that positional control is achievable with the current +hardware configuration. Security vulnerabilities related to open Bluetooth access were identified. These findings +suggest that open-source, locally fabricated motor controllers can meet the functional requirements of electric cargo +bikes while significantly improving repairability. \end{abstract} \begin{IEEEkeywords} @@ -209,8 +210,10 @@ The objective is to minimize the perceived additional effort when towing a cargo PID-based (Proportional–Integral–Derivative) control strategy combined with distance sensing, allowing adaptive assistance based on system dynamics. + \section{Hardware-Based Six-Step Commutation Controller} + \section{STM32-Based Field-Oriented Control Motor Drive} @@ -294,9 +297,10 @@ for the the MAD associates. % ************************************ DYNAMIC MODELLING *************************************************************** + \section{Dynamic Modelling and Control of the Bicycle–Cargo System} -\subsection{System Modelling and Simulation} +\subsection{Dynamic System Modelling} The studied system consists of a bicycle towing a cargo cart through a rigid mechanical linkage. This link is only used for steering guidance and does not contribute to the traction force. The main objective is to ensure that the rider @@ -306,8 +310,6 @@ From a control perspective, the rider provides a reference motion in terms of sp is expected to follow this reference with minimal delay. The position error between the bicycle and the cargo cart is computed using a distance sensor, which provides feedback relative to an equilibrium state. -\subsubsection{Dynamic Modelling} - The cargo cart is modelled as the plant of the system. Its rotational dynamics are described using the fundamental equation of rotational motion: @@ -347,15 +349,15 @@ Thus, the transfer function between motor torque and linear velocity is: \end{equation*} -\subsubsection{Simulation and Control} - +\subsection{PI-Based Control Strategy} +\label{subsec:Simulink_model} Based on this model, a Simulink representation of the system was developed. The controlled system includes a feedback -loop using a PI controller in order to regulate the position error between the bicycle and the cargo cart. +loop using a PI (Proportional-Integral) controller in order to regulate the position error between the bicycle and the cargo cart. Since the reference input is a ramp signal (representing the bicycle position over time), an integral action is required to ensure zero steady-state error and accurate tracking of the reference trajectory. -The closed-loop Simulink model of the system is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:simulink_closedloop}. +The closed-loop Simulink model of the system is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:simulink-closedloop}. The control error is defined as the difference between a desired relative position and the measured displacement between the bicycle and the cargo cart: @@ -363,29 +365,43 @@ the bicycle and the cargo cart: e(t) = e_{\text{ref}} - (x_{\text{bike}} - x_{\text{cart}}) \end{equation*} where $e_{\text{ref}} = \SI{-0.5}{\meter}$ represents the desired equilibrium offset between both systems. -The resulting position error between the bicycle and the cargo cart is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:tracking_error}. - -\FloatBarrier \begin{figure}[!h] \centering \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{./Figures/sys_dyn_matlab.png} \caption{Closed-loop model of the bicycle–cargo system with PI control.} - \label{fig:simulink_closedloop} + \label{fig:simulink-closedloop} \end{figure} + +\subsection{Control Architecture Exploration} + + +% ******************************** RESULTS ************************************************************************** + + +\section{Results} + +\subsection{Bicycle-Cargo System Control Results} + +\subsubsection{Simulation Results} +The closed-loop Simulink model presented in the subsection~\ref{subsec:Simulink_model} was used to evaluate the +performance of the proposed PI-based (Proportional-Integral) control strategy. + +Figure~\ref{fig:tracking-error} shows the evolution of the tracking error between the bicycle and the cargo cart during +simulation. The response exhibits an initial transient phase followed by a progressive convergence toward the desired +equilibrium position, demonstrating stable closed-loop behaviour and satisfactory tracking performance. \begin{figure}[!h] \centering \includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{./Figures/error_fig.png} \caption{Position tracking error between bicycle and cargo cart.} - \label{fig:tracking_error} + \label{fig:tracking-error} \end{figure} -\subsection{Control Architecture Exploration} +\subsubsection{Experimental Load Characterization} -\subsection{Experimental Characterization Under Different Loads} % ******************************** DISCUSSION ************************************************************************** @@ -419,7 +435,6 @@ What should be a clear conclusion from our test with the jammer is that a contro avoided when possible and practical. Examples where this could be relevant include electric skateboards, as cables could impose a tripping hazard. There, an encapsulation of an encrypted control frame could be an thought. -\section{Results} \section{Conclusion/Summary}